In general, sociocultural perspectives on language learning and teaching stand in contrast to cognitive psychological approaches, because approaches are not focused on the cognitive development of language acquisition but rather on the "sociocultural context surrounding the learner that helps facilitate the learner process" (Wright, 2015)
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) Theory
Lev Vygotsky-
Vygotsky argued that learning is a social activity, and that knowledge is constructed though the interactions and collaboration between individuals. Thus, Vygotsky argued that children develop language primarily from interactions. Furthermore, Vygotsky defined that there are three main stages of learning zones. One of these three domains is considered a child's Zone of Proximal Development. ZPD is thought of as the domain, or a "metaphoric space, where a child can reach a high level of knowledge and performance with the support of an adult or other knowledgeable person" (Wright, 2015). The ZPD is where teachers can scaffold information to students in a way that he/she may understand. The other domains is 1) the zone where a child can easily perform a skill/knowledge on his own, and 2) where a student cannot reach a level of knowledge despite having adults help; in other words the child is not cognitively ready for the knowledge and will grasp it until he/she is able to. ZPD is important for teachers working their students for it gives them the initiative to hit their teaching with in the ZPD domain. A teacher that draws on the ZPD may plan for more deliberate, meaningful instruction of the content material, and plan to work with the students to co-construct their knowledge and understanding.
Vygotsky argued that learning is a social activity, and that knowledge is constructed though the interactions and collaboration between individuals. Thus, Vygotsky argued that children develop language primarily from interactions. Furthermore, Vygotsky defined that there are three main stages of learning zones. One of these three domains is considered a child's Zone of Proximal Development. ZPD is thought of as the domain, or a "metaphoric space, where a child can reach a high level of knowledge and performance with the support of an adult or other knowledgeable person" (Wright, 2015). The ZPD is where teachers can scaffold information to students in a way that he/she may understand. The other domains is 1) the zone where a child can easily perform a skill/knowledge on his own, and 2) where a student cannot reach a level of knowledge despite having adults help; in other words the child is not cognitively ready for the knowledge and will grasp it until he/she is able to. ZPD is important for teachers working their students for it gives them the initiative to hit their teaching with in the ZPD domain. A teacher that draws on the ZPD may plan for more deliberate, meaningful instruction of the content material, and plan to work with the students to co-construct their knowledge and understanding.
Language Socialization
Language Socialization (LS)
LS researchers study, analyze, and investigate how children are socialized through language in their respective speech communities across a wide range of sociocultural contexts. "Language Socialization refers to the process in which an individuals learns and practices participating within a language community" (Wright 2015). In other words, individuals use different forms of language within different cultural discourses, and language socialization is essentially study the difference that may occur from on cultural individual to another. This is important for teachers to understand when working with ELL's, because it further allows teachers to understand that they are teaching a language and the socialization their students need to successfully communicate in a mostly academic context.
LS researchers study, analyze, and investigate how children are socialized through language in their respective speech communities across a wide range of sociocultural contexts. "Language Socialization refers to the process in which an individuals learns and practices participating within a language community" (Wright 2015). In other words, individuals use different forms of language within different cultural discourses, and language socialization is essentially study the difference that may occur from on cultural individual to another. This is important for teachers to understand when working with ELL's, because it further allows teachers to understand that they are teaching a language and the socialization their students need to successfully communicate in a mostly academic context.
Additive Bilingualism is "an approach to second language teaching in which the second language is seen as an addition to the learner’s first language rather than as a replacement for it" (IGI, 2017). Additive Bilingualism occurs when a student develops proficiency in a new language without losing his or her home language (Wright 2015). With the Additive Bilingual approach, learning English is viewed as an additional language rather than a replacement. A more accurate term that can be used when describing the phenomenon of learning two languages simultaneously is dynamic bilingualism. This gives the idea that an individual develops language proficiency at the same time in both the L1 and in L2, instead of the idea that one is adding on to one language at a time. Either way both terms are more beneficial to the student as compared to the "subtractive bilingualism approach which occurs when a new language replaces a student's home language" (Wright 2015). Schools must focus on developing both languages for we have learned through the different types of theorist that developing skill in one language helps further developed second language acquisitions as well.
Theories of Academic Language
|
What is Academic Language?
Jim Cummins argued that there are two very distinguishable types of language proficiency one develops. The first language proficiency he defined as BICS which stands for Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills. This language proficiency is considered to be the language one develops in a more casual, social, and contextualized way, thus making it easier for one to acquire. The second language proficiency Cummins defines he named CALP, which stands for Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency. This type of language proficiency is considered to be non-contextualized, academic related, language that often requires more cognitive thought processes to interpret. In Cummins argument, he explains that both languages are very different from one another. For student's who are emergent bilinguals, they may demonstrate a higher level of proficiency with BICS than with CALP. This is important for teachers to recognize for an emergent-bilingual student may easily be able to orally verbalize with peers and express ideas in social events, but may still need scaffolding to understand and process school academic language. |
Maren Aukerman
Aukerman takes a different approach to Cummins idea for she argues that it is not so simple to draw a line between the two different types of proficiency, and that there is no clear distinction that can be made between BICS and CALP language. Aukerman argues that when one is in a academic setting he/she does use that of BICS to further interpret language of CALP. In other words, student drawl on familiar language and context from their developed BICS proficiency to further develop their understanding in CALP situations. Also, Aukerman argues that CALP language is contextualized like BICS. For example, while reading academic language a individual searches for the context of what is being expressed to them. Ultimately, Aukerman argues that BICS and CALP language proficiencies are intermingled and it is not okay to state that a student is lacking in CALP for that student may just have been exposed to CALP in a different manner than what is expected from that of the teacher. This is important for teachers to recognize for it provides them understanding that academic language may be more challenging for students in general, but teachers can find ways to support academic language by using BICS language to scaffold a student learning in CALP
Aukerman takes a different approach to Cummins idea for she argues that it is not so simple to draw a line between the two different types of proficiency, and that there is no clear distinction that can be made between BICS and CALP language. Aukerman argues that when one is in a academic setting he/she does use that of BICS to further interpret language of CALP. In other words, student drawl on familiar language and context from their developed BICS proficiency to further develop their understanding in CALP situations. Also, Aukerman argues that CALP language is contextualized like BICS. For example, while reading academic language a individual searches for the context of what is being expressed to them. Ultimately, Aukerman argues that BICS and CALP language proficiencies are intermingled and it is not okay to state that a student is lacking in CALP for that student may just have been exposed to CALP in a different manner than what is expected from that of the teacher. This is important for teachers to recognize for it provides them understanding that academic language may be more challenging for students in general, but teachers can find ways to support academic language by using BICS language to scaffold a student learning in CALP
Works Cited:
- Aukerman, M. (2007). A culpable CALP: Rethinking the conversational/academic language proficiency distinction in early literacy instruction. International Reading Association. Retrieved from: file:///C:/Users/enbryant/Downloads/Aukerman_Culpable%20Calp%202007%20(2).pdf
- Howard, K. (2014). Language Socialization. Oxford Bibliographies. Retrieved from: http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199766567/obo-9780199766567-0111.xml
- IGI, "What is Additive Bilingualism." (2017). Retrieved from: http://www.igi-global.com/dictionary/additive-bilingualism/652
- McLoed, S. (2014). Lev Vygotsky. Simply Psychology. Retrieved from: http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html
- Wright, W. E. (2010). Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners: Research, Theory. Policy and Practice. Philadelphia: Caslon Publishing