CONNECTING PAST THEORIES TO PRESENT THEORIES OF SECOND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Understanding first language acquisition theories helps us further interpret theories regarding second language development for our current knowledge on how individuals acquire a second (third, fourth, etc) language depends on our understanding of the earlier theories on first language acquisition development.
SLA researchers argue that we learn a second language in much of the same way we learn our first language.
Understanding first language acquisition theories helps us further interpret theories regarding second language development for our current knowledge on how individuals acquire a second (third, fourth, etc) language depends on our understanding of the earlier theories on first language acquisition development.
SLA researchers argue that we learn a second language in much of the same way we learn our first language.
Influential Cognitive Approaches to Second Language Learning
Stephen Krashen's Model- Includes Five Interrelated Hypotheses:
Krashen's theory is widely known and well accepted when considering SLA. Furthermore, Krashen's theory has had a large impact in many areas of teaching. Krashen's theory is broken down into five main hypotheses. 1. The acquisition-learning hypothesis. Krashen argues that there is a distinct difference between learning a language and acquiring a language. Language acquisition is a subconscious, rather effortless, process that takes place. When we acquire a language we simply pick it up by being surrounded by other individuals that use that particular language (Wright, 2015). A toddler, or a young child is a great example of an individual that simply learns language. On the opposite spectrum, learning language is a conscious process that often requires effort to learn the fundamentals of a language. Krashen further argued that the vast majority of a learned language is through acquiring that language rather than consciously learning it. |
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2. The Natural Order Hypotheses. Krashen claims that the way we "learn parts of a language in a predictable order" (Wright, 2015). The way we learn a second language is similar to the way we acquire a first language in many ways, but is not entirely the same. For example, learning -ing in first language English learners is acquired early, while learning third person singular -s is not acquired as early in ELLs.
(3. The Motor Hypothesis. This hypotheses refers to Krashen's belief that we use "learned language" in order to monitor,, correct, or inspect errors of our "acquire language" before, or as we speak it. In other words, sometimes we are able to detect a mistake in our acquired language before we actually say it aloud or write it. This can be viewed as a conscious thought process before choose to orally pronounce the language.
4. The Input Hypothesis (Also Known As Comprehensible Hypothesis. Krashen hypothesized that in order for us to learn a second language we must "be able to understand messages, or obtain comprehensible input" (Wright, 2015). Krashen came up with the formula i+1 to explain comprehensible input (i) represent a student's current cognitive level of understanding in a language, and the +1 is to represent input that is ever so slightly above the student's current proficiency.
4. The Input Hypothesis (Also Known As Comprehensible Hypothesis. Krashen hypothesized that in order for us to learn a second language we must "be able to understand messages, or obtain comprehensible input" (Wright, 2015). Krashen came up with the formula i+1 to explain comprehensible input (i) represent a student's current cognitive level of understanding in a language, and the +1 is to represent input that is ever so slightly above the student's current proficiency.
5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis. Krashen explains that
an affective filter dictates "how much comprehensible input
get through to the learner" (Wright, 2015). When one's affective
filter is high less comprehensible input will be received. An
affective filter may be high when one feels uncomfortable,
has anxiety, low self-esteem, or feels vulnerable or out of place.
Therefore, a major goal for teacher's of a language is to "lower"
the affective filter of a child.
an affective filter dictates "how much comprehensible input
get through to the learner" (Wright, 2015). When one's affective
filter is high less comprehensible input will be received. An
affective filter may be high when one feels uncomfortable,
has anxiety, low self-esteem, or feels vulnerable or out of place.
Therefore, a major goal for teacher's of a language is to "lower"
the affective filter of a child.
Key Aspect of Krashen's theory that has greatly impacted teaching of ELL's
Krashen points out that, "Comprehensible Input is an essential ingredient for SLA". Hi claimed, on top of the five hypothesis, that individuals only learn language when they receive comprehensible input and if their affective filter is low enough to take in input. That is, we acquire language when we understand the things we hear or read.
Krashen points out that, "Comprehensible Input is an essential ingredient for SLA". Hi claimed, on top of the five hypothesis, that individuals only learn language when they receive comprehensible input and if their affective filter is low enough to take in input. That is, we acquire language when we understand the things we hear or read.
Interaction Hypothesis
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Micheal Long agreed with Krashen's idea of comprehensible input and how it is crucial for developing a second language; however, "Long focuses on how input can be made comprehensible through modified interaction, arguing that learners need opportunities to interact with other speakers and reach mutual comprehension"(Wright 2015). When there is an interactions between a language learner and a proficient speaker there is often a variety of methods used by both participants to help them communicate with one another. Some of these methods may include "simplifying the language, reducing the rate of speech, using gestures, repeating phrases, and using comprehension check/questions" (Wright 2015).
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Comprehensible Output Hypothesis
Merril Swain took the idea about "comprehensible input" and added onto it as well by coming up with the Comprehensible Output Hypothesis. Swain basically argues that when a language learner is having a conversation and having to put effort into being understood, they will most likely see the limits of their second language ability and the need to find better ways to get their meaning across. Thus knowing they will have to speak to communicate further forces put more effort into paying attention to what they are saying and how they are saying it. Ultimately, Swain argues that we need both comprehensible input and output taking place within conversations in order to acquire a second language.
Common Underlying Proficiency Theory
Jim Cummins theory of Second Language Acquisition has directly influenced classroom instruction especially for emergent bilinguals. Cummins argued that when individuals are learning a second language, they cognitively rely on what he defines as Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP). CUP is basically the idea that there is this reservoir of knowledge and/or skill drawn on when developing both first language (L1) and second language (L2) acquisitions. Cummins further states that during the course of learning one language, a child acquires a set of skills and "implicit metalinguistic knowledge" that can be used when working in another language (Shoebottom, 2017). Thus, when a second language learner receives language development in CUP in one language, this learned proficiency can further be transferred to help the proficiency of the other language.
Cummins theory of Common Underlying Proficiency is essential for teachers to understand for it helps them realize how important it is to support language proficiency in both a students native language L1 and in their development of English L2. This also helps teachers understand that content can be transferred from one language to another; while taking this in considerations, teachers can strive to find ways to teach content in that students native language and know that information will not be lost but will be further transferred into that of L2 language development.
Cummins theory of Common Underlying Proficiency is essential for teachers to understand for it helps them realize how important it is to support language proficiency in both a students native language L1 and in their development of English L2. This also helps teachers understand that content can be transferred from one language to another; while taking this in considerations, teachers can strive to find ways to teach content in that students native language and know that information will not be lost but will be further transferred into that of L2 language development.
Work Cited
Wright, W. E. (2010). Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners: Research, Theory. Policy and Practice. Philadelphia: Caslon Publishing
Shoebottom, P. (2017). Second Language Acquisition- Essential Information. Retrieved from: esl.fis.edu/teachers/support/cumin.htm.
Wright, W. E. (2010). Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners: Research, Theory. Policy and Practice. Philadelphia: Caslon Publishing
Shoebottom, P. (2017). Second Language Acquisition- Essential Information. Retrieved from: esl.fis.edu/teachers/support/cumin.htm.